大野 伸彦

Mitochondrial functions play important roles in metabolism of cancer cells and are affected by the microenvironment including blood circulation. To overcome the technical artifacts of conventional fixation and dehydration methods, the in vivo cryotechnique (IVCT) was combined with fluorescent protein expression and used to examine the distribution of mitochondria in tumor tissues obtained from melanoma-grafted mice. Quick-freezing followed by freeze-substitution (FS) could well retain the fluorescence intensity of fluorescent proteins including mitochondria-targeted DsRed2 (mitoDsRed) in cultured B16-BL6 cells. In the subcutaneous tumor tissues produced by injection of mitoDsRed-expressing B16-BL6 cells, the melanoma cells scattering throughout the tumor tissues prepared with IVCT followed by FS had clear fluorescence of mitoDsRed, and individual tumor cells expressing hypoxia markers, including carbonic anhydrase IX and hypoxia-inducible factor-1α, had decreased volume of mitoDsRed. The cytoplasm and processes of the cancer cells extended along the collagen type IV-immunopositive basement membranes and often contained mitoDsRed. Combination of fluorescent protein expression and IVCT would be a powerful tool to examine cells and organelles with fluorescent protein expression along with histochemical/immunohistochemical labelings. Furthermore, the results suggest that mitochondrial volume and distribution could be modulated by the hypoxic microenvironment and attachment to basement membranes.

The IVCT with replica immunoelectron microscopy was developed for detecting caveolin localization on replica membranes directly prepared from living smooth muscle cells. After quick-freezing mouse duodenal walls by our IVCT, the specimens were prepared for freeze fracture and deep-etching replica membranes. Then, they were treated with 5 % SDS and 0.5 % collagenase to keep some antigens on the replica membranes. The immunogold method could be used to clarify the localization of the caveolin antigen in relation to three-dimensional ultrastructures of living smooth muscle cells. Our new cryotechnique with replica immunostaining can provide native organization of functional molecules in living smooth muscle cells.

Light microscopic imaging of blood vessels and distribution of serum proteins are essential to analyze hemodynamics in living animal lungs under normal respiration or respiratory diseases. In this section, we visualized dynamically changing morphology of paraffin specimens of mouse lungs. By hematoxylin-eosin staining, morphological features, such as shapes of alveolar septum and sizes of alveolar lumen, reflected their respiratory conditions in vivo, and alveolar capillaries were filled with variously shaped erythrocytes. To capture accurate time courses of blood flow in peripheral pulmonary alveoli, glutathione-coated quantum dots (QDs) were injected into right ventricles. QDs were localized in most arterioles and some alveolar capillaries at 1 s and later in venules at 2 s, reflecting a typical blood flow direction in vivo. For pathological visualization, IVCT was also applied to lungs of acute pulmonary hypertension mouse model. Erythrocytes were crammed in blood vessels, and some serum components leaked into alveolar lumens, as confirmed by mouse albumin immunostaining. Some separated collagen fibers and connecting elastic fibers were still detected in edematous tunica adventitia near terminal bronchioles.

Tissue resection or perfusion fixation in conventional procedures causes ischemic or anoxic artifacts. In vivo cryotechnique (IVCT) has been used to overcome these problems and study the distribution of soluble molecules without ischemic/anoxic artifacts at high time resolution. There are some limitations of IVCT the target organs of living small animals need to be exposed, and tissues adjacent to the target organs are inevitably damaged by poured isopentane-propane cryogens. A new cryotechnique, “cryobiopsy,” enables acquisition of tissue specimens of larger animals without anoxia/ischemia with technical advantages similar to those of IVCT. Live-imaging techniques could be complemented by IVCT and cryobiopsy, and cryofixation can preserve all components in frozen tissue specimens. Thus, IVCT and cryobiopsy followed by freeze substitution for light or electron microscopy will provide more precise morphofunctional information in vivo on tissue sections, and also they can be combined with other analytical methods, such as Raman microscopy, freeze-fracture replication, and X-ray microanalyses. The merits of IVCT and cryobiopsy will be underscored in the applications to other microscopic fields and experimental animal studies in clinical medicine.

In this chapter, we present dynamic structures of peripheral nerve fibers under various stretching conditions and distribution of soluble serum proteins with “in vivo cryotechnique” (IVCT). The structures of IVCT-prepared fibers under the stretched condition showed a beaded appearance. By immunostaining for a membrane skeletal protein 4.1G, Schmidt-Lanterman incisures (SLIs) were clearly identified, and the heights of their circular truncated cones were increased at narrow sites of the fibers under the stretched condition. Albumin was immunolocalized in blood vessels and the endoneurium including near the node of Ranvier. Thus, IVCT revealed structures and accurate immunolocalization of serum albumin in the sciatic nerve fibers, reflecting living states.

Capsaicin, an agonist of transient receptor potential vanilloid receptor 1, induces axonal degeneration of peripheral sensory nerves and is commonly used to treat painful sensory neuropathies. In this study, we investigated the role of mitochondrial dynamics in capsaicin-induced axonal degeneration. In capsaicin-treated rodent sensory axons, axonal swellings, decreased mitochondrial stationary site length and reduced mitochondrial transport preceded axonal degeneration. Increased axoplasmic Ca2+ mediated the alterations in mitochondrial length and transport. While sustaining mitochondrial transport did not reduce axonal swellings in capsaicin-treated axons, preventing mitochondrial fission by overexpression of mutant dynamin-related protein 1 increased mitochondrial length, retained mitochondrial membrane potentials and reduced axonal loss upon capsaicin treatment. These results establish that mitochondrial stationary site size significantly affects axonal integrity and suggest that inhibition of Ca2+-dependent mitochondrial fission facilitates mitochondrial function and axonal survival following activation of axonal cationic channels.

In this study, morphological and immunohistochemical alterations of skeletal muscle tissues during persistent contraction were examined by in vivo cryotechnique (IVCT). Contraction of gastrocnemius muscles was induced by sciatic nerve stimulation. The IVCT was performed immediately, 3 min or 10 min after the stimulation start. Prominent ripples of muscle fibers or wavy deformation of sarcolemma were detected immediately after the stimulation, but they gradually diminished to normal levels during the stimulation. The relative ratio of sarcomere and A band lengths was the highest in the control group, but it immediately decreased to the lowest level and then gradually recovered at 3 min or 10 min. Although histochemical intensity of PAS reaction was almost homogeneous in muscle tissues of the control group or immediately after the stimulation, it decreased at 3 min or 10 min. Serum albumin was immunolocalized as dot-like patterns within some muscle fibers at 3 min stimulation. These patterns became more prominent at 10 min, and the dots got larger and saccular in some sarcoplasmic regions. However, IgG1 and IgM were immunolocalized in blood vessels under nerve stimulation conditions. Therefore, IVCT was useful to capture the morphofunctional and metabolic changes of heterogeneous muscle fibers during the persistent contraction.

Schwann cells and axons have close and complex interactions that determine Schwann cell behavior and fate and support or impair axonal integrity. The interactions are mediated by molecules that are responsible for physical junctions between Schwann cells and axons and also soluble mediators which are generated and bidirectionally transported in the interface. Multiple types of axonal signals are critical for regulating Schwann cell proliferation, differentiation, myelination, and myelin maintenance. At the same time, Schwann cells regulate axonal development and play essential roles for survival of axons. Current evidence suggests that the trophic support of Schwann cells is associated with modulation of axonal metabolism, which is involved in functional maintenance of axonal mitochondria. Further advancement in genetic techniques, transgenic models, and myelinating cultures will elucidate the molecular and cellular mechanisms of Schwann cell-axon interactions that could lead to new therapies of peripheral nervous system diseases.

Axonal degeneration is a primary cause of permanent neurological disability in individuals with the CNS demyelinating disease multiple sclerosis. Dysfunction of axonal mitochondria and imbalanced energy demand and supply are implicated in degeneration of chronically demyelinated axons. The purpose of this study was to define the roles of mitochondrial volume and distribution in axonal degeneration following acute CNS demyelination. We show that the axonal mitochondrial volume increase following acute demyelination of WT CNS axons does not occur in demyelinated axons deficient in syntaphilin, an axonal molecule that immobilizes stationary mitochondria to microtubules. These findings were supported by time-lapse imaging of WT and syntaphilin-deficient axons in vitro. When demyelinated, axons deficient in syntaphilin degenerate at a significantly greater rate than WT axons, and this degeneration can be rescued by reducing axonal electrical activity with the Na+ channel blocker flecainide. These results support the concept that syntaphilin-mediated immobilization of mitochondria to microtubules is required for the volume increase of axonal mitochondria following acute demyelination and protects against axonal degeneration in the CNS.

In the human disorder multiple sclerosis (MS) and in the model experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), macrophages predominate in demyelinated areas and their numbers correlate to tissue damage. Macrophages may be derived from infiltrating monocytes or resident microglia, yet are indistinguishable by light microscopy and surface phenotype. It is axiomatic that T cell-mediated macrophage activation is critical for inflammatory demyelination in EAE, yet the precise details by which tissue injury takes place remain poorly understood. In the present study, we addressed the cellular basis of autoimmune demyelination by discriminating microglial versus monocyte origins of effector macrophages. Using serial block-face scanning electron microscopy (SBF-SEM), we show that monocyte-derived macrophages associate with nodes of Ranvier and initiate demyelination, whereas microglia appear to clear debris. Gene expression profiles confirm that monocyte-derived macrophages are highly phagocytic and inflammatory, whereas those arising from microglia demonstrate an unexpected signature of globally suppressed cellular metabolism at disease onset. Distinguishing tissue-resident macrophages from infiltrating monocytes will point toward new strategies to treat disease and promote repair in diverse inflammatory pathologies in varied organs.

The microenvironments of organs with blood flow affect the metabolic profiles of cancer cells, which are influenced by mitochondrial functions. However, histopathological analyses of these aspects have been hampered by technical artifacts of conventional fixation and dehydration, including ischemia/anoxia. The purpose of this study was to combine the in vivo cryotechnique (IVCT) with fluorescent protein expression, and examine fluorescently labeled mitochondria in grafted melanoma tumors. The intensity of fluorescent proteins was maintained well in cultured B16-BL6 cells after cryotechniques followed by freeze-substitution (FS). In the subcutaneous tumors of mitochondria-targeted DsRed2 (mitoDsRed)-expressing cells, a higher number of cancer cells were found surrounding the widely opened blood vessels that contained numerous erythrocytes. Such blood vessels were immunostained positively for immunoglobulin M and ensheathed by basement membranes. MitoDsRed fluorescence was detected in scattering melanoma cells using the IVCT-FS method, and the total mitoDsRed volume in individual cancer cells was significantly decreased with the expression of markers of hypoxia. MitoDsRed was frequently distributed throughout the cytoplasm and in processes extending along basement membranes. IVCT combined with fluorescent protein expression is a useful tool to examine the behavior of fluorescently labeled cells and organelles. We propose that the mitochondrial volume is dynamically regulated in the hypoxic microenvironment and that mitochondrial distribution is modulated by cancer cell interactions with basement membranes.

Background: In living animal bodies, some morphological changes of nerve fibers will probably occur when peripheral nerves are stretched or not stretched during various joint exercises. We aimed to capture the dynamic structures of nerves under various stretching conditions and to keep soluble serum proteins in their tissue sections. New method: Morphological changes of stretched or non-stretched sciatic nerve fibers were examined with "in vivo cryotechnique" (IVCT). Fibers were directly frozen with liquid isopentane-propane cryogen (-193 degrees C). Immunolocalizations of protein 4.1G and albumin were also examined in the fibers. Results: The structures of IVCT-prepared sciatic nerves under the stretched condition showed a beaded appearance. By immunostaining for membrane skeletal protein 4.1G, Schmidt-Lanterman incisures (SLIs) were clearly identified, and the heights of their circular truncated cones were increased at narrow sites of the nerve fibers under the stretched condition, compared to those of non-stretched nerve fibers. Albumin was immunolocalized in blood vessels and also along endoneurium including regions near the node of Ranvier. Comparison with existing methods: With the conventional perfusion-fixation method (PF), it was difficult to keep stable postures of living mouse limbs for tissue preparation. In nerve fibers after PF, the structures of SLI were easily modified, and albumin was heterogeneously immunolocalized due to diffusion artifacts. Conclusions: IVCT revealed (1) the structures of peripheral nerve fibers under dynamically different conditions, indicating that the morphological changes of SLIs play a functional role as a bumper structure against mechanical forces, and (2) accurate immunolocalization of serum albumin in the sciatic nerve fibers. (C) 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Microscopic bioimaging of blood flow and distribution of cancer cells in lungs is essential to analyze mechanism of lung metastasis. Such cancer metastasis has been well known to induce hypercoagulable states and thrombosis. In histopathological tissue sections, however, it has been difficult to capture rapid phenomenon of thrombus formation due to technical problems associated with much less retention of soluble serum components as well as dynamic histological features reflecting their living states. In this study, to achieve bioimaging of both hypercoagulable states and thrombosis induced by early metastasis of mouse B16-BL6 melanoma, "in vivo cryotechnique" (IVCT) was used, which retained soluble components at their original sites. Glutathione-coated quantum dots (QDs) were subsequently injected after melanoma cells via right ventricles to examine plasma flow with fluorescence emission. At 5 s after the melanoma injection, melanoma cells were mostly stacked and intruded in alveolar capillaries with changing their shapes. Assembly of platelets initially appeared at 1 min, and they aggregated around the stacked melanoma cells at 5 min. Such aggregated platelets were immuno-positive for both phospho-tyrosine 418 and 527 of Src, indicating their partial signal activation. Fibrin monomers were also immunolocalized around both melanoma cells and platelet aggregates, and massive immunoreaction deposits of fibrinogen were also detected near the same areas, but more strongly detected around the melanoma cells, indicating initial thrombus formation. In those areas, QDs were rarely detected, probably because of the lack of blood supply. Thus, IVCT revealed histopathological features of initial thrombosis under their circulatory conditions. (C) 2013 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

It is difficult to understand the in vivo permeability of thymic blood vessels, but "in vivo cryotechnique" (IVCT) is useful to capture dynamic blood flow conditions. We injected various concentrations of horseradish peroxidase (HRP) with or without quantum dots into anesthetized mice via left ventricles to examine architectures of thymic blood vessels and their permeability at different time intervals. At 30 sec after HRP (100 mg/ml) injection, enzyme reaction products were weakly detected in interstitium around some thick blood vessels of corticomedullary boundary areas, but within capillaries of cortical areas. At 1 and 3 min, they were more widely detected in interstitium around all thick blood vessels of the boundary areas. At 10 min, they were diffusely detected throughout interstitium of cortical areas, and more densely seen in medullary areas. At 15 min, however, they were uniformly detected throughout interstitium outside blood vessels. At 30 min, phagocytosis of HRP by macrophages was scattered throughout the interstitium, which was accompanied by decrease of HRP reaction intensity in interstitial matrices. Thus, time-dependent HRP distributions in living mice indicate that molecular permeability and diffusion depend on different areas of thymic tissues, resulting from topographic variations of local interstitial flow starting from corticomedullary areas.

Angiotensin II (AT) receptors, including AT receptor type 1 (AT1R) and type 2 (AT2R), are expressed in the rodent central nervous system, but their distributions and activation states are still unclear. In this study, we have performed immunohistochemical analyses of AT receptors in mouse cerebellum and adrenal gland using our "in vivo cryotechnique" (IVCT). We used antibodies against amino-terminal domains of AT receptors, which are considered to undergo conformational changes upon the binding of AT. Immunoreactivity of AT1R was detected in mouse cerebellum, and was highest in the outer tissue areas of molecular layers using IVCT. The AT1R immunostaining largely overlapped with glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), a marker of Bergmann glia. Surprisingly, the AT1R immunoreactivity in the cerebellar cortex was remarkably reduced following 5 and 10 min of hypoxia or direct administration of an AT1R antagonist, losartan. By contrast, in the adrenal cortex, such AT1R immunoreactivity detected at the zona glomerulosa did not change even after 15 min of hypoxia. The correlation of localization with GFAP and also hypoxia-induced decrease of its immunoreactivity were similarly observed by immunostaining of AT2R in the cerebellar specimens. These findings demonstrated that IVCT is useful to reveal dynamically changing immunoreactivities usually affected by receptor-ligand binding as well as hypoxia, and also suggested that functional activities of AT receptors are time-dependently modulated under hypoxia in the central nervous system in comparison with the adrenal glands.

Schmidt-Lanterman incisure (SLI), a truncated cone-shape in a myelin internode, is a specific feature of myelinated nerve fibers in the peripheral nervous system (PNS). In this review, we focus on the membrane skeleton in SLI. First, we describe a membrane skeletal protein, 4.1G, and its relationship to membrane palmitoylated protein 6 (MPP6) and cell adhesion molecule 4 (CADM4), which is analogous to a molecular complex in the erythrocyte membrane skeleton, 4.1R-MPP1-glycophorin C. In 4.1G-deficient nerve fibers, the height of the SLI-truncated cones was reduced compared to that in the wild type. 4.1G was essential for molecular targeting of MPP6 and CADM4 in SLI. Second, we discuss a signal transduction protein, Src, in the SLIs of mouse sciatic nerves, and its phosphorylation states under normal conditions or deletion of 4.1G. Normally, Src is phosphorylated in Y527, but not in Y418. Developmentally, the phosphorylation in Y418 appeared in SLIs of early postnatal mouse sciatic nerves. An MPP6-Src interaction was found, and the phosphorylation of Y418 appeared in 4.1G-deficient nerve fibers. The functional meaning of the Src localization in SLI is discussed. Here, we demonstrate a novel Src-MPP6-4.1G-CADM4 membrane skeletal molecular complex in SLIs, with potential roles in regulation of adhesion and signal transduction in Schwann cells.

Intestinal ischemia and ischemia-reperfusion rapidly progress to tissue destruction and reconstruction of functional organs. To date, precise immunolocalizations and the timing of appearance of cell signaling components under such conditions have not been well visualized. Mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signal transduction pathways have been reported to be activated under various types of cell damage, and cyclic AMP response element-binding protein (CREB) was directly phosphorylated with various cellular stimuli. In this study, both the expression and the immunolocalization of ERK1/2, a member of the MAPK family, were examined in mouse intestinal tissues by in vivo cryotechnique, which is useful to retain soluble molecules including cell signaling molecules. Under normal conditions, although ERK was widely immunolocalized in the cytoplasm of epithelial cells, phosphorylated (p) ERK1/2 was slightly detected in a small amount of epithelial cells in crypt and top parts of the villi. In 5 min ischemia, more pERK1/2 immunolocalization was detected in epithelial cells of the crypt part. Up to 60 min, the pERK1/2 immunoreactivity was remarkably increased in wide areas of epithelial cells. In the 20 and 60 min ischemia groups, phosphorylated CREB was also immunostained in the nuclei of the same epithelial cell areas of pERK1/2. In 20 min ischemia with 60 min reperfusion experiments, pERK1/2 immunointensity was reduced in the crypt areas. In 60 min ischemia with 60 min reperfusion, however, it was still strongly immunolocalized in epithelial cells of the crypts. Thus, rapidly changing ERK1/2 phosphorylation was visualized in the intestinal epithelial stem cells of mouse small intestine.

Schmidt-Lanterman incisures (SLIs) are a specific feature of myelinated nerve fibers in the peripheral nervous system (PNS). In this study, we report localization of a signal transduction protein, Src, in the SLIs of mouse sciatic nerves, and its phosphorylation states in Y527 and Y418 (P527 and P418, respectively) under normal conditions or deletion of a membrane skeletal protein, 4.1G. In adult mouse sciatic nerves, Src was immunolocalized in SLIs as a cone-shape, as well as in paranodes and some areas of structures reminiscent of Cajal bands. By immunostaining in normal nerves, P527-Src was strongly detected in SLIs, whereas P418-Src was much weaker. Developmentally, P418-Src was detected in SLIs of early postnatal mouse sciatic nerves. The staining patterns for P527 and P418 in normal adult nerve fibers were opposite to those in primary culture Schwann cells and a Schwannoma cell line, RT4-D6P2T. In 4.1G-deficient nerve fibers, which had neither 4.1G nor the membrane protein palmitoylated 6 (MPP6) in SLIs, the P418-Src immunoreactivity in SLIs was clearly detected at a stronger level than that in the wild type. An immunoprecipitation study revealed Src interaction with MPP6. These findings indicate that the Src-MPP6-4.1G protein complex in SLIs has a role in signal transduction in the PNS.

The charging effects of microfibrils of sciatic nerve tissues due to electron irradiation are investigated using electron holography. The phenomenon that the charging effects are enhanced with an increase of electron intensity is visualized through direct observations of the electric potential distribution around the specimen. The electric potential at the surface of the specimen could be quantitatively evaluated by simulation, which takes into account the reference wave modulation due to the long-range electric field.

Aim: To compare the influence of different fixation procedures on morphologic studies in living mice, and to identify the advantages of the in vivo cryotechnique (IVCT). Methods: We prepared mouse kidneys using four different fixation methods: conventional immersion-fixation, quick-freezing following resection of the kidney, quick-freezing following perfusion-fixation, and IVCT. Results: Kidney glomeruli were noticeably contracted after conventional immersion-fixation or quick-freezing following resection compared to glomeruli from tissues preserved by the IVCT. With the IVCT, both albumin and IgG were colocalized exclusively along or within the glomerular capillary loops; however, immunoreactivity of these proteins in the other three methods was clearly detected in the Bowman's space and apical cytoplasm of the proximal tubules. With the IVCT, immunoreactivity of collagen type IV was very weak at the glomerular basement membrane (GBM) until microwave treatment, which increased its immunoreactivity. In contrast, the immunoreactivity was clearly detected at the GBM with or without microwave treatment with quick-freezing following perfusion-fixation. With quick-freezing following perfusion-fixation, aquaporin-1 (AQP-1) was irregularly distributed in a disorganized manner on the brush border and apical cell membrane along the proximal tubules. But AQP-1 was labeled intensely and regularly along the brush border and apical cell membrane andonly weakly along the basolateral membrane of the proximal tubules with the IVCT. Conclusion: The IVCT may reliably maintain soluble serum proteins and renal intrinsic proteins such as AQP-1 in situ and capture transient structures and functional changes in vivo. Microsc. Res. Tech., 2013. (C) 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is a well-known energy source for muscle contraction. In this study, to visualize localization of ATP, a luciferin-luciferase reaction (LLR) was performed in mouse skeletal muscle with an "in vivo cryotechnique" (IVCT). First, to confirm if ATP molecules could be trapped and detected after glutaraldehyde (GA) treatment, ATP was directly attached to glass slides with GA, and LLR was performed. The LLR was clearly detected as an intentional design of the ATP attachment. The intensity of the light unit by LLR was correlated with the concentration of the GA-treated ATP in vitro. Next, LLR was evaluated in mouse skeletal muscles with IVCT followed by freeze-substitution fixation (FS) in acetone-containing GA. In such tissue sections the histological structure was well maintained, and the intensity of LLR in areas between muscle fibers and connective tissues was different. Moreover, differences in LLR among muscle fibers were also detected. For the IVCT-FS tissue sections, diaminobenzidine (DAB) reactions were clearly detected in type I muscle fibers and erythrocytes in capillaries, which demonstrated flow shape. Thus, it became possible to perform microscopic evaluation of the numbers of ATP molecules in the mouse skeletal muscles with IVCT, which mostly reflect living states.

It has been difficult to clarify the precise localizations of soluble serum proteins in thymic tissues of living animals with conventional immersion- or perfusion-fixation followed by alcohol dehydration owing to ischemia and anoxia. In this study, "in vivo cryotechnique" (IVCT) followed by freeze-substitution fixation was performed to examine the thymic structures of living mice and immunolocalizations of intrinsic or extrinsic serum proteins, which were albumin, immunoglobulin G1 (IgG1), IgA, and IgM, as well as intravenously injected bovine serum albumin (BSA). Mouse albumin was more clearly immunolocalized in blood vessels and interstitial matrices of the thymic cortex than in tissues prepared by the conventional methods. The immunoreactivities of albumin and IgG1 were stronger than those of IgA and IgM in the interstitium of subcapsular cortex. The injected BSA was time-dependently immunolocalized in blood vessels and the interstitium of corticomedullary areas at 3.5 h after its injection, and then gradually diffused into the interstitium of the whole cortex at 6 h and 12 h. Thus, IVCT revealed definite immunolocalizations of serum albumin and IgG1 in the interstitium of thymus of living mice, indicating different accessibility of serum proteins from the corticomedullary areas, not from the subcapsular cortex of living animals, depending on various molecular sizes and concentrations.

Mitochondrial DNA deletions (a dagger-mtDNA) have been implicated in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease (AD), multiple sclerosis (MS) and Parkinson's disease (PD), as well as ageing. Clonal expansion of a dagger-mtDNA is the process by which a mutant mtDNA molecule increases to high levels within a single cell containing both wild-type and mutant mtDNA. Unlike in AD and PD, the diffuse inflammatory process in MS involves the choroid plexus, and mitochondria are exposed to reactive oxygen and nitrogen species over a prolonged period. We determined the extent of respiratory enzyme deficiency and a dagger-mtDNA at a single cell level within choroid plexus epithelial cells in MS as well as in AD, PD and controls. The respiratory enzyme-deficient (lacking complex IV and with intact complex II activity) cells were more prevalent within the choroid plexus in AD, MS and PD compared with controls. The main catalytic subunit of complex IV (subunit-I of cytochrome c oxidase) was lacking in significantly more respiratory enzyme-deficient cells in MS compared with AD, PD and controls. The single cell analysis showed a fourfold increase in the percentage of respiratory enzyme-deficient choroid plexus epithelial cells harbouring clonally expanded a dagger-mtDNA in MS. Our findings establish clonal expansion of a dagger-mtDNA as a feature relatively more prominent within the choroid plexus epithelium in MS than AD, PD or controls. We propose clonal expansion of a dagger-mtDNA as a molecular link between inflammation and part of a delayed cellular energy failure in MS.

Purpose of review Here, we discuss the recent developments in axonal mitochondrial response to demyelination and remyelination in multiple sclerosis (MS), and following experimental demyelination as well as myelination. Recent findings There is a gathering body of evidence implicating an energy-deficient state in the pathogenesis of MS, and mitochondrial defects have been the subject of a number of previous reviews. In myelinated axons within the central nervous system, over 90% of mitochondria are located within juxtaparanodal and internodal axoplasm. The electrogenic machinery, mitochondria and myelin form a triad that is disrupted in MS. The axonal mitochondrial content increases following demyelination and persists despite the residual inflammatory reaction subsiding to levels seen in control cases. The changes in axonal mitochondrial content following demyelination in MS and experimental demyelination in vivo and in vitro do not return to the levels in nondemyelinated and myelinated axons following remyelination. Summary Understanding the mechanisms of axonal mitochondrial response to a disturbance in myelin and determining if certain aspects of the axonal mitochondrial response to demyelinated and remyelinated axons are beneficial may identify potential therapeutic targets for the progressive forms of MS.

Objective: To explore myelin components and mitochondrial changes within the central nervous system in patients with well-characterized mitochondrial disorders due to nuclear DNA or mitochondrial DNA(mtDNA) mutations. Design: Immunohistochemical analysis, histochemical analysis, mtDNA sequencing, and real-time and long-range polymerase chain reaction were used to determine the pathogenicity of mtDNA deletions. Setting: Department of Clinical Pathology, Columbia University Medical Center, and Newcastle Brain Tissue Resource. Patients: Seventeen patients with mitochondrial disorders and 7 controls were studied from August 1, 2009, to August 1, 2010. Main Outcome Measure: Regions of myelin-associated glycoprotein (MAG) loss. Results: Myelin-associated glycoprotein loss in Kearns-Sayre syndrome was associated with oligodendrocyte loss and nuclear translocation of apoptosis-inducing factor, whereas inflammation, neuronal loss, and axonal injury were minimal. In a Kearns-Sayre syndrome MAG loss region, high levels of mtDNA deletions together with cytochrome-c oxidase-deficient cells and loss of mitochondrial respiratory chain subunits (more prominent in the white than gray matter and glia than axons) confirmed the pathogenicity of mtDNA deletions. Conclusion: Primary mitochondrial respiratory chain defects affecting the white matter, and unrelated to inflammation, are associated with MAG loss and central nervous system demyelination.

In the brains of patients with fetal Minamata disease (FMD), which is caused by exposure to methylmercury (MeHg) during development, many neurons are hypoplastic, ectopic, and disoriented, indicating disrupted migration, maturation, and growth. MeHg affects a myriad of signaling molecules, but little is known about which signals are primary targets for MeHg-induced deficits in neuronal development. In this study, using a mouse model of FMD, we examined how MeHg affects the migration of cerebellar granule cells during early postnatal development. The cerebellum is one of the most susceptible brain regions to MeHg exposure, and profound loss of cerebellar granule cells is detected in the brains of patients with FMD. We show that MeHg inhibits granule cell migration by reducing the frequency of somal Ca2+ spikes through alterations in Ca2+, cAMP, and insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF1) signaling. First, MeHg slows the speed of granule cell migration in a dose-dependent manner, independent of the mode of migration. Second, MeHg reduces the frequency of spontaneous Ca2+ spikes in granule cell somata in a dose-dependent manner. Third, a unique in vivo live-imaging system for cell migration reveals that reducing the inhibitory effects of MeHg on somal Ca2+ spike frequency by stimulating internal Ca2+ release and Ca2+ influxes, inhibiting cAMP activity, or activating IGF1 receptors ameliorates the inhibitory effects of MeHg on granule cell migration. These results suggest that alteration of Ca2+ spike frequency and Ca2+, cAMP, and IGF1 signaling could be potential therapeutic targets for infants with MeHg intoxication.

Light microscopic imaging of blood vessels and distribution of serum proteins is essential to analyze hemodynamics in living animal lungs under normal respiration or respiratory diseases. In this study, to demonstrate dynamically changing morphology and immunohistochemical images of their living states, "in vivo cryotechnique" (IVCT) combined with freeze-substitution fixation was applied to anesthetized mouse lungs. By hematoxylin-eosin staining, morphological features, such as shapes of alveolar septum and sizes of alveolar lumen, reflected their respiratory conditions in vivo, and alveolar capillaries were filled with variously shaped erythrocytes. Albumin was usually immunolocalized in the capillaries, which was confirmed by double-immunostaining for aquaporin-1 of endothelium. To capture accurate time-courses of blood flow in peripheral pulmonary alveoli, glutathione-coated quantum dots (QDs) were injected into right ventricles, and then IVCT was performed at different time-points after the QD injection. QDs were localized in most arterioles and some alveolar capillaries at 1 s, and later in venules at 2 s, reflecting a typical blood flow direction in vivo. Three-dimensional QD images of microvascular networks were reconstructed by confocal laser scanning microscopy. It was also applied to lungs of acute pulmonary hypertension mouse model. Erythrocytes were crammed in blood vessels, and some serum components leaked into alveolar lumens, as confirmed by mouse albumin immunostaining. Some separated collagen fibers and connecting elastic fibers were still detected in edematous tunica adventitia near terminal bronchioles. Thus, IVCT combined with histochemical approaches enabled us to capture native images of dynamically changing structures and microvascular hemodynamics of living mouse lungs.

The role of genetic inheritance in brain development has been well characterized, but little is known about the contributions of natural environmental stimuli, such as the effect of light-dark cycles, to brain development. In this study, we determined the role of light stimuli in neuronal cell migration to elucidate how environmental factors regulate brain development. We show that in early postnatal mouse cerebella, granule cell migration accelerates during light cycles and decelerates during dark cycles. Furthermore, cerebellar levels of insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) are high during light cycles and low during dark cycles. There are causal relationships between light-dark cycles, speed of granule cell migration, and cerebellar IGF-1 levels. First, changes in light-dark cycles result in corresponding changes in the fluctuations of both speed of granule cell migration and cerebellar IGF-1 levels. Second, in vitro studies indicate that exogenous IGF-1 accelerates the migration of isolated granule cells through the activation of IGF-1 receptors. Third, in vivo studies reveal that inhibiting the IGF1 receptors decelerates granule cell migration during light cycles (high IGF-1 levels) but does not alter migration during dark cycles (low IGF-1 levels). In contrast, stimulating the IGF-1 receptors accelerates granule cell migration during dark cycles (low IGF-1 levels) but does not alter migration during light cycles (high IGF-1 levels). These results suggest that during early postnatal development light stimuli control granule cell migration by altering the activity of IGF-1 receptors through modification of cerebellar IGF-1 levels.

Protein 4.1G is a membrane skeletal protein found in specific subcellular structures in myelinated Schwann cells and seminiferous tubules. Here, we show that in the mouse sciatic nerve, protein 4.1G colocalized at Schmidt-Lanterman incisures (SLI) and the paranodes with a member of the membrane-associated guanylate kinase (MAGUK) family, membrane protein palmitoylated 6 (MPP6). Coimmunoprecipitation experiments revealed that MPP6 was interacting with protein 4.1G. In contrast to wild-type nerves, in 4.1G knockout mice, MPP6 was found largely in the cytoplasm near Schwann cell nuclei, indicating an abnormal protein transport. Although the SLI remained in the 4.1G knockout sciatic nerves, as confirmed by E-cadherin immunostaining, their shape was altered in aged 4.1G knockout nerves compared to their shape in wild-type nerves. In the seminiferous tubules, MPP6 was localized similarly to protein 4.1G along cell membranes of the spermatogonium and early spermatocytes. However, in contrast to myelinated peripheral nerves, the specific localization of MPP6 in the seminiferous tubules was unaltered in the absence of protein 4.1G. These results indicate that 4.1G has a specific role in the targeting of MPP6 to the SLI and the assembly of these subcellular structures.

Mitochondrial content within axons increases following demyelination in the central nervous system, presumably as a response to the changes in energy needs of axons imposed by redistribution of sodium channels. Myelin sheaths can be restored in demyelinated axons and remyelination in some multiple sclerosis lesions is extensive, while in others it is incomplete or absent. The effects of remyelination on axonal mitochondrial content in multiple sclerosis, particularly whether remyelination completely reverses the mitochondrial changes that follow demyelination, are currently unknown. In this study, we analysed axonal mitochondria within demyelinated, remyelinated and myelinated axons in post-mortem tissue from patients with multiple sclerosis and controls, as well as in experimental models of demyelination and remyelination, in vivo and in vitro. Immunofluorescent labelling of mitochondria (porin, a voltage-dependent anion channel expressed on all mitochondria) and axons (neurofilament), and ultrastructural imaging showed that in both multiple sclerosis and experimental demyelination, mitochondrial content within remyelinated axons was significantly less than in acutely and chronically demyelinated axons but more numerous than in myelinated axons. The greater mitochondrial content within remyelinated, compared with myelinated, axons was due to an increase in density of porin elements whereas increase in size accounted for the change observed in demyelinated axons. The increase in mitochondrial content in remyelinated axons was associated with an increase in mitochondrial respiratory chain complex IV activity. In vitro studies showed a significant increase in the number of stationary mitochondria in remyelinated compared with myelinated and demyelinated axons. The number of mobile mitochondria in remyelinated axons did not significantly differ from myelinated axons, although significantly greater than in demyelinated axons. Our neuropathological data and findings in experimental demyelination and remyelination in vivo and in vitro are consistent with a partial amelioration of the supposed increase in energy demand of demyelinated axons by remyelination.

Tumor behavior depends on the complex tumor interstitium and microenvironment, which influence transport of fluid and soluble molecules from blood vessels. The purpose of this study was to reveal how complex tumor tissues affect the immunodistribution of serum proteins and time-dependent translocation of bovine serum albumin (BSA) from blood vessels, using relatively differentiated human adenocarcinoma produced by the xenografted A549 cell line. Histological architecture and immunodistribution of the serum proteins in adenocarcinomatous tissues were clearly detected by the in vivo cryotechnique and cryobiopsy. Both albumin and IgG1 were detected in blood vessels, connective tissues around the tumor mass, and the interstitium among tumor cell nests. IgM was mainly detected in blood vessels and connective tissues around the tumor mass but was not detected in the interstitium among the tumor cell nests. At 10 or 30 min after BSA injection, BSA was observed only in blood vessels, but 1 h after the injection, it was also detected in the interstitium and surrounding connective tissues of the tumor mass. The present findings showed topographic variation of molecular permeation in the adenocarcinomatous tumor mass. The interstitial tissues with augmented permeability of serum proteins would increase accessibility of tumor cells to blood-derived molecules.

Energy production presents a formidable challenge to axons as their mitochondria are synthesized and degraded in neuronal cell bodies. To meet the energy demands of nerve conduction, small mitochondria are transported to and enriched at mitochondrial stationary sites located throughout the axon. In this study, we investigated whether size and motility of mitochondria in small myelinated CNS axons are differentially regulated at nodes, and whether mitochondrial distribution and motility are modulated by axonal electrical activity. The size/volume of mitochondrial stationary sites was significantly larger in juxtaparanodal/internodal axoplasm than in nodal/paranodal axoplasm. With three-dimensional electron microscopy, we observed that axonal mitochondrial stationary sites were composed of multiple mitochondria of varying length, except at nodes where mitochondria were uniformly short and frequently absent altogether. Mitochondrial transport speed was significantly reduced in nodal axoplasm compared with internodal axoplasm. Increased axonal electrical activity decreased mitochondrial transport and increased the size of mitochondrial stationary sites in nodal/paranodal axoplasm. Decreased axonal electrical activity had the opposite effect. In cerebellar axons of the myelin-deficient rat, which contain voltage-gated Na+ channel clusters but lack paranodal specializations, axonal mitochondrial motility and stationary site size were similar at Na+ channel clusters and other axonal regions. These results demonstrate juxtaparanodal/internodal enrichment of stationary mitochondria and neuronal activity-dependent dynamic modulation of mitochondrial distribution and transport in nodal axoplasm. In addition, the modulation of mitochondrial distribution and motility requires oligodendrocyte-axon interactions at paranodal specializations.

4.1 family proteins are membrane skeletal proteins that interact with spectrin-actin networks and intramembraneous proteins. We reported that one of them, 4.1G, was immunolocalized in myelinated nerve fibers of the mouse peripheral nervous system, especially along cell membranes of paranodes and Schmidt-Lanterman incisures in Schwann cells. In this study, to examine 4.1G's appearance in unmyelinated peripheral nerve fibers, we focused on the enteric nervous system in mouse large intestines. In intestinal tissues prepared by an "in vivo cryotechnique" followed by freeze-substitution fixation, 4.1G was immunolocalized in Auerbach's myenteric plexus and connecting nerve fiber networks. Its immunostaining was mostly colocalized with glial fibrillar acidic protein, a marker of enteric glial cells, but not with c-Kit, a marker of interstitial cells of Cajal. Using whole-mount preparation after splitting inner and outer muscle layers, the nerve fiber networks including the plexus were clearly detected by the 4.1G immunostaining. By conventional pre-embedding immunoelectron microscopy, 4.1G was detected along cell membranes of enteric glial cells and their processes surrounding axons. These indicate that 4.1G may have some roles in adhesion and/or signal transduction in unmylinated PNS nerve fibers. (C) 2010 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.

The "in vivo cryotechnique" (IVCT) is a powerful tool to directly freeze living animal organs in order to maintain biological components in frozen tissues, reflecting their native states. In this study, mesenteric lymph nodes of living mice were directly frozen with IVCT, and we did morphological studies and immunohistochemical analyses on a hyaluronic acid receptor, LYVE-1. In lymph nodes, widely open lymphatic sinuses were observed, and many lymphocytes adhered to inner endothelial cells along subcapsular sinuses. The LYVE-1 was clearly immunolocalized at inner endothelial cells of subcapsular sinuses, as well as those of medullary sinuses. Conventional pre-embedding electron microscopy also showed LYVE-1 immunolocalization along both the apical and basal sides of cell membranes of inner endothelial cells. By triple-immunostaining for LYVE-1, smooth muscle actin, and type IV collagen, the LYVE-1 was immunolocalized only in the inner endothelial cells, but not in outer ones which were surrounded by collagen matrix and smooth muscle cells. Thus, the functional morphology of lymph nodes in vivo was demonstrated and LYVE-1 immunolocalization in inner endothelial cells of subcapsular sinuses suggests hyaluronic acid incorporation into lymph node parenchyma.

Soluble proteins and glycogen particles are well preserved in paraffin-embedded sections prepared by in vivo cryotechnique (IVCT) and cryobiopsy followed by freeze substitution fixation. We performed confocal laser scanning microscopic analyses on the distributions of glycogen with periodic acid-Schiff (PAS) staining and serum proteins with immunostaining for mouse liver tissues. Livers of fully fed mice showed a strong fluorescence signal of PAS staining in all hepatocytes and immunofluorescence of immunoglobulin kappa light chain (Ig kappa) in blood vessels and bile canaliculi. However, some hepatocytes in mechanically damaged livers were PAS-negative and Ig kappa-immunopositive, showing extraction of glycogen particles and infiltration of serum proteins in hepatocytes. By three-dimensional (3D) reconstruction of serial optical sections, interconnecting hepatic sinusoids and bile canaliculi were detected with Ig kappa immunostaining between trabecular hepatocytes that were PAS stained. In PAS-stained samples under fasting conditions, interstitial structures along sinusoids were clarified in vivo by 3D reconstruction because of the lower PAS staining intensity of hepatocytes. In addition, 100-mu m-thick eosin-stained slices provided 3D structural images more than 30 mu m in thickness away from tissue surfaces, showing blood vessels with flowing erythrocytes and networks of bile ducts and canaliculi. IVCT and cryobiopsy with histochemical analyses enabled us to visualize native hepatocytic glycogen and 3D structures, such as vascular networks, reflecting their living states by confocal laser scanning microscopy.

The "in vivo cryotechnique" (IVCT) is a powerful tool to instantly capture blood flow, and all plasma components are well kept in tissue samples. In this study, we injected glutathione (GSH)-coated quantum dots (QDs), which emit a 650-nm-fluorescent signal with an ultraviolet excitation, into anesthetized mouse left ventricles, and IVCT was performed for kidneys, spleens and livers at 2, 5, 10, 15, 30 s or 24 h after the QD injection. The frozen tissues were processed to freeze-substitution fixation (FS). Then, some specimens were embedded in paraffin wax for tissue sectioning, and some were cut with a razor blade and directly mounted on glass slides. They were observed in fluorescence or confocal laser scanning microscope (CLSM). In the renal cortex, QD distribution was detected mostly in glomerular blood capillaries at 2 second, and extended to peritubular blood capillaries at 5 s. Distribution of horseradish peroxidase (HRP) in renal cortex at 30 s after the injection was compared by the simultaneous injection with QDs. HRP was detected by a diaminobenzidin reaction in interstitium in addition to blood vessels, whereas QDs were localized only inside blood vessels. Three-dimensional reconstruction with CLSM demonstrated the capillary networks in the whole renal glomerulus. In the spleens, QDs were detected in splenic cords entering from sheathed capillaries at 10 s, and extended to deeper splenic cords and also into splenic sinuses at 15 s. Thus, strict time-dependent visualization of blood flow in tissue sections became possible within seconds by the new technical combination of IVCT and injection of QDs into animal organs. (C) 2010 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Our final goal of morphological and immunohistochemical studies is that all findings examined in animal experiments should reflect the physiologically functional background. Therefore, the preservation of original components in cells and tissues of animals is necessary for describing the functional morphology of living animal organs. It is generally accepted that morphological findings of various organs were easily modified by stopping their blood supply. There had been a need to develop a new preparation technique for freezing the living animal organs in vivo and then obtaining acceptable morphology and also immunolocalization of original components in functioning cells and tissues. We already developed the 'in vivo cryotechnique' (IVCT) not only for their morphology, but also for immunohistochemistry of many soluble components in various living animal organs. All physiological processes of cells and tissues were immediately immobilized by IVCT, and every component in the cells and tissues was maintained in situ at the time of freezing. Thus, the ischaemic or anoxic effects on them could be minimized by IVCT. Our specially designed cryoknife with liquid cryogen has solved the morphological and immunohistochemical problems which are inevitable with the conventional preparation methods at a light or electron microscopic level. The IVCT will be extremely useful for arresting transient physiological processes and for maintaining any intracellular components in situ, such as rapidly changing signal molecules, membrane channels and receptors.

Some morphological changes are inevitable during immersion- or perfusion-fixation and following alcohol-dehydration for tissue preparations. Common immunostaining techniques for these specimens have some limitations to capture accurate localizations of soluble proteins in cells and tissues. In this study, to examine in situ distributions of immunoglobulins (Igs), small intestinal tissues of living mice were prepared with our "in vivo cryotechnique" (IVCT). Thin sections were first stained with hematoxylin-eosin for morphology, and then some immunostainings were performed on serial sections for IgA, Ig kappa light chain, IgG1 heavy chain (IgG1), and IgM. Living morphological states of small intestinal tissues, including flowing erythrocytes and opening blood vessels, were observed on paraffin sections prepared with IVCT. IgA was immunolocalized in many plasma cells of the lamina mucosa propria, intestinal matrices, and also in epithelial cells of the intestinal villi and crypts. Both IgG1 and IgM immunoreactivities were mainly detected in blood vessels, whereas only IgG1 was also immunolocalized in interstitial matrices of mucous membranes. By perfusion-fixation and alcohol-dehydration, however, IgA immunoreactivity was observed in plasma cells, but not in epithelial cells or the lamina mucosa propria. Thus, IVCT was more useful to examine in vivo immunolocalizations of soluble Igs in small intestines. (C) 2010 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

We previously reported that a membrane skeletal protein, 4.1G (also known as EPB41L2), is immunolocalized in mouse seminiferous tubules. In this study, the 4.1G immunolocalizaiton was precisely evaluated at various stages of the mouse seminiferous epithelial cycle with 'in vivo cryotechnique' and also with pre-embedding immunoelectron microscopy in testicular tissues whose ultrastructures were well preserved with glycerol treatment before cryosectioning. In addition, 4.1G-deficient mice were produced, and the morphology of their seminiferous tubules was also evaluated. The 4.1G immunolocalization was different among stages, indicating that it was not only along cell membranes of Sertoli cells, but also those of spermatogonia and early spermatocytes. To confirm the 4.1G immunolocalization in germ cells, in vitro culture of spermatogonial stem cells (SSCs) was used for immunocytochemistry and immunoblotting analysis. In the cultured SSCs, 4.1G was clearly expressed and immunolocalized along cell membranes, especially at mutual attaching regions. In testicular tissues, cell adhesion molecule-1 (CADM1), an intramembranous adhesion molecule, was colocalized on basal parts of the seminiferous tubules and immunoprecipitated with 4.1G in the tissue lysate. Interestingly, in the 4.1G-deficient mice, histological manifestation of the seminiferous tubules was not different from that in wild-type mice, and the CADM1 was also immunolocalized in the same pattern as that in the wild-type. Moreover, the 4.1G-deficient male mice were fertile. These results were probably due to functional redundancy of unknown membrane skeletal molecules in germ cells. Thus, a novel membrane skeletal protein, 4.1G, was found in germ cells, and considering its interaction with CADM family, it probably has roles in attachment of both Sertoli-germ and germ-germ cells. Reproduction (2010) 139 883-892

Axonal degeneration contributes to permanent neurological disability in inherited and acquired diseases of myelin. Mitochondrial dysfunction has been proposed as a major contributor to this axonal degeneration. It remains to be determined, however, if myelination, demyelination, or remyelination alter the size and distribution of axonal mitochondrial stationary sites or the rates of axonal mitochondrial transport. Using live myelinated rat dorsal root ganglion (DRG) cultures, we investigated whether myelination and lysolecithin-induced demyelination affect axonal mitochondria. Myelination increased the size of axonal stationary mitochondrial sites by 2.3-fold. After demyelination, the size of axonal stationary mitochondrial sites was increased by an additional 2.2-fold and the transport velocity of motile mitochondria was increased by 47%. These measures returned to the levels of myelinated axons after remyelination. Demyelination induced activating transcription factor 3 (ATF3) in DRG neurons. Knockdown of neuronal ATF3 by short hairpin RNA abolished the demyelination-induced increase in axonal mitochondrial transport and increased nitrotyrosine immunoreactivity in axonal mitochondria, suggesting that neuronal ATF3 expression and increased mitochondrial transport protect demyelinated axons from oxidative damage. In response to insufficient ATP production, demyelinated axons increase the size of stationary mitochondrial sites and thereby balance ATP production with the increased energy needs of nerve conduction.

Soluble proteins and glycogen particles, which are easily lost upon conventional chemical fixation, have been reported to be better preserved in paraffin-embedded sections by 'cryobiopsy' combined with freeze-substitution fixation (FS). In this study, we examined the distribution of glycogen in living mouse livers under physiologic and pathologic conditions with periodic acid-Schiff (PAS) staining by cryobiopsy. The livers of the fully fed mice showed high PAS-staining intensity in the cytoplasm of all hepatocytes. The PAS-staining intensity gradually decreased away from hepatocytes around portal tracts, depending on treatments with different alpha-amylase concentrations. At 6 or 12 h after fasting, PAS-staining intensity markedly decreased in restricted areas of zone I near the portal tracts. The cryobiopsy was repeatedly performed not only on different mice, but also on individuals. Next, glycogen distributions were evaluated by temporarily clipping of liver tissues of anesthetized mice, followed by recovery of blood circulation. In the liver tissues in which blood was recirculated for 1 h after the 30 min anoxia, PAS staining was still observed in zone II and also in restricted areas of zone I far from the portal tracts. In PAS-unstained hepatocytes, the immunoglobulin-kappa light chain was not detected in the cytoplasm, indicating that cell membrane permeability was retained and that glycogen metabolism was related to the functional state of blood circulation. We propose that the level of consumption or production of glycogen particles could vary in zone I, depending on the distance from the portal tracts. Thus, cryobiopsy combined with FS enabled us to examine time-dependent changes in glycogen distribution in the liver tissues of living mice. This combination might be applicable to the clinical evaluation of human liver tissues.

The final goal of immunohistochemical studies is that all findings examined in animal experiments should reflect the physiologically functional background. Therefore, the preservation of original components in cells and tissues is necessary for describing the functional morphology of living animal organs. It is generally accepted that morphological findings of various organs are easily modified during the conventional preparation steps. The quick-freezing method, by which resected tissues are quickly frozen, reduces morphological artifacts resulting in significant findings of native cells and tissues. However, tissues have to first be resected from living animal organs for quick-freezing. We have developed an "in vivo cryotechnique" for immunohistochemistry of some components in living animal organs. All physiological processes are immediately immobilized in the ice crystals by the "in vivo cryotechnique," and every components of the cells and tissues are maintained in situ at the time of freezing. Thus, ischemic or anoxic effects are minimized on immunohistochemical localization of the components. Another new "cryobiopsy" technique will be useful for capturing time-dependent morphological changes in the same animal including humans and for maintaining intracellular components. © Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2010.

For the past several decades, morphological study by electron microscopy has been one of the major approaches to understanding physiological and pathological features of living animals, including humans, in the medical and biological fields. In particular, transmission (TEM) or scanning electron microscopy (SEM) has greatly facilitated enormous progress in ultrastructural analyses of cells and tissues, including many applications for clinical medicine and molecular biology. In such cases, they must reflect some functional aspects of living animal organs. For morphological observation, both chemical fixation and alcohol dehydration have commonly been used as established preparation procedures, but they bring about many morphological artifacts in dynamically changing cells and tissues at an electron microscopic level (Figure 12.1 steps a, b) (Furukawa et al., 1991 Yoshimura et al., 1991 Ohno et al., 1992). On the contrary, conventional cryotechniques, by which animal tissues are quickly frozen for physical fixation, have greatly contributed to reduction of such morphological artifacts, but they have to be resected from living animal organs for quick-freezing and high-pressure freezing (Figure 12.1 steps c, d) (Yu et al., 1997, 1998). These animal specimens are inevitably exposed to biological stresses of ischemia and anoxia, exhibiting only dead morphological states of their cells and tissues without normal blood circulation. Therefore, we have developed the “in vivo cryotechnique” (IVCT) to clarify morphofunctional significance of cells and tissues in living animal organs (Figure 12.1 step f), and have reported dynamically changing morphology in vivo and also immunolocalization of functional proteins in cells and tissues at both light and electron microscopic levels (Ohno et al., 1996a, 2004 Ohno et al., 1996b Ohno et al., 2006 Terada et al., 2006 Ohno et al., 2007).

The electric field around positively charged biological specimens is studied by electron holography. By the amplitude reconstruction process for holograms, the orbits of electron-induced secondary electrons are clarified on the nanometer scale. It is found that the stationary orbit of secondary electrons can be directly located without disturbing their motions under the condition that the current of secondary electrons in stationary orbit is considerably larger than that of incident electrons. The experimental conditions for the induction of the stationary orbit of secondary electrons are discussed, and furthermore the theoretical basis of the orbital location of secondary electrons through electric field visualization is discussed in the framework of quantum mechanics.

The purpose of this study was to clarify a previously controversial issue concerning glutamate (Glu) immunoreactivity (IR) in the inner segment (IS) of photoreceptors by using in vivo cryotechnique (IVCT) followed by freeze substitution (FS), which enabled us to analyze the cells and tissues reflecting living states. Eyeballs from anesthetized mice were directly frozen using IVCT. The frozen tissues were processed for FS fixation in acetone containing chemical fixatives, and embedded in paraffin. Deparaffinized sections were immunostained with an anti-Glu antibody. The strongest Glu-IR was obtained in the specimens prepared by FS with paraformaldehyde or a low concentration of glutaraldehyde, whereas no Glu-IR was obtained without the chemical fixatives. The Glu was immunolocalized in the IS, outer and inner plexiform and ganglion cell layers. Thus, the immunolocalization of Glu in the IS was clearly demonstrated using IVCT. (J Histochem Cytochem 57:883-888,2009)

A case of extraskeletal myxoid chondrosarcoma (ESMC), which developed in the right thigh of a middle-aged Japanese woman, was studied using immunohistochemistry, conventional electron microscopy, and the quick-freezing and deep-etching (QF-DE) method. In addition to typical light microscopic findings of ESMC, conventional electron microscopy indicated that the tumor cells had features of chondrocytes. Immunohistochemically, the tumor cells showed a positive immunoreaction for S100 protein. A diagnosis of ESMC was made. An interesting observation was the ultrastructural features of collagen fibrils in the myxoid matrix highlighted by the QF-DE method. These collagen fibrils consisted of relatively thin collagen (20-35 nm) with pleated surface structures. The surface striation at 65 nm was obscure. We consider that such a finding of collagen fibrils identified by the QF-DE method is one of the characteristics of the myxoid matrix of ESMC, and this is useful for the differential diagnosis of myxoid soft tissue tumors.

Umbrella cells (UCs) of the epithelium of the urinary bladder have the capacity to control bladder volume by regulating exocytosis/endocytosis of their intracellular discoid vesicles (DVs). Dynamin (Dyn) is a GTPase that promotes endocytic processes through scission of cell membranes. We have examined whether Dyn2, the most abundant Dyn form, is expressed in UCs and contributes to their endocytic actions. A specific antibody against Dyn2 was used to localize Dyn2 in human and rodent UCs by immunohistochemistry. To clarify the functional roles of Dyn2, mouse bladders were treated with a Dyn-GTPase inhibitor, dynasore, and its effects on their UC structure were assessed. Since uropathogenic Escherichia coli can be encased into UCs during infection, we used immunohistochemistry to determine whether bacteria-encasing compartments in the infected UCs were also enriched with Dyn2. Light microscopy showed that Dyn2 was abundantly expressed in UCs, especially near the apical cytoplasmic regions. By immunoelectron microscopy, Dyn2 was found on and around DV membranes in UCs. Ultrastructural analysis with a quick- freezing and deep-etching method confirmed these findings and revealed the existence of distinct Dyn2-bound microfilaments in close association with DV membranes. Dynasore treatment of bladders markedly reduced the number of DVs in UCs. In infected UCs, E. coli was encased in compartments enriched in Dyn2. Therefore, Dyn2 is highly enriched in UCs and mostly associated with membranes of DVs and microfilaments in the UCs. Pretreatment of bladders with dynasore inhibits E. coli invasion of UCs. Dyn2 thus contributes to the structural integrity of DVs and to the endocytic activity of UCs.

Protein kinases (PKs) phosphorylate proteins at active regions for signal transduction. In this study, normal and hypoxic mouse kidneys were prepared using an "in vivo cryotechnique" (IVCT) and examined immunohistochemically with specific antibodies against phospho-(Ser/Thr) PKA/C substrate (P-PK-S) and phospho-(Ser/Thr) Akt substrate (P-Akt-S) to capture their time-dependent regulation in vivo. Left kidneys were cryofixed with IVCT under normal blood circulation and after varying hypoxic intervals, followed by freeze-substitution with acetone containing paraformaldehyde. Deparaffinized sections were immunostained for P-PK-S, Na+/HCO3 (-) cotransporter NBC1, and a membrane skeletal protein, 4.1B. The P-PK-S was diffusely immunolocalized in the cytoplasm of the proximal tubules in normal kidneys, whereas NBC1 and 4.1B were detected at the basal striations of S1 and S2 segments of the proximal tubule. After 10 or 30 s hypoxia, P-PK-S was still immunolocalized in the cytoplasm of kidneys, but it was detected at the basal striations after 1 or 2 min hypoxia. The immunolocalization of P-Akt-S was the same as P-PK-S in the normal and hypoxic kidneys. Immunoblotting analyses of the kidney tissues under normal or hypoxic condition clearly identified the same 40-kDa bands. The IVCT is useful for time-dependent analysis of the immunodistribution of P-PK-S and P-Akt-S.